Including the perspective of stakeholders in landscape planning through the Ecosystem Services co-production framework: an empirical exploration in Le Marche, Italy.

Research on Ecosystem Services (ES) has become dominant in landscape planning to frame the relationship between people and nature. Increasingly, studies are stressing that most ES do not flow from nature alone but require a significant human contribution, known as ES co-production. However, there is a lack of understanding on how different stakeholders contribute to ES co-production. Here, we integrated stakeholders’ perspectives in landscape planning using questionnaires and focus groups in a case study in Le Marche, Italy. We found that respondents acknowledge co-production in a wide range of ES with a major share of cultural ES. Mostly self-perceived as users and managers, local stakeholders invest in their activities mainly human and social capitals, while physical and financial capitals gain importance in the case of provisioning services. Our findings embraced the multiple aspects of human-nature interactions, offering the opportunity to bridge different sectors, such as agriculture, eco-tourism, and resilience against extreme events, toward a multifunctional vision of landscapes. The integration of the ES co-production framework proved useful in fostering the access of stakeholders to decision-making.